Although Machu Picchu is located only about 50 miles from Cusco, the Inca capital, it was never found by the Spanish and consequently not plundered and destroyed. Over the centuries, the surrounding jungle grew over much of the site, and few knew the site even existed.

One of Machu Picchu’s primary functions was that of astronomical observatory. The Intihuatana stone has been shown to be a precise indicator of the date of the two equinoxes and other significant celestial periods. The Intihuatana is designed to hitch the sun at the two equinoxes- at midday on March 21st and September 21st, the sun stands almost directly above the pillar, creating no shadow at all. At this precise moment the sun “sits with all his might upon the pillar” and is for a moment “tied” to the rock. At these periods, the Incas held ceremonies at the stone in which they “tied the sun” to halt its northward movement in the sky. It was very sacred.

Machu Picchu was designated as a World Heritage Site in 1983 when it was described as “an absolute masterpiece of architecture and a unique testimony to the Inca civilization”. On July 7, 2007, Machu Picchu was voted as one of the New Seven Wonders of the World.

Machu Picchu Visitor Information
There are a few different ways to visit Machu Picchu: hiking the Inca Trail, by train from the city of Cuzco to Aguas Calientes, or by taking a helicopter from the Cuzco airport to Aguas Calientes.

Most people get to Machu Picchu via the Inca Trail. This is a four day hike through the mountains. It’s not long but it is very hard and the ascent is very steep. Tours book out months in advance and cost hundreds of dollars. Yet this is one of the most rewarding ways to get to Machu Picchu as you have to “work for it” and you appreciate what people hundreds of years had to go through to get to this remote place.

You can also take the train to Machu Picchu. During the peak months of May to September all of the train tickets can be sold out several days in advance. If you are on a tight schedule it is absolutely essential that you make you train reservations as far in advance as possible. Do not wait until you arrive in Cusco to buy your train tickets. Trips via the train book out months in advance.

Machu Picchu Conservation Efforts
UNESCO continually threatens to put Machu Picchu on its list of World Heritage in Danger sites, a designation meant to encourage swift corrective action due to rampant tourism to the site that has lad to a degradation of Machu Picchu and a threat to its existence.

In January 2001 the government began to regulate the trail and to require permits. Of the 93 tour operators that had sold Inca Trail packages at the time, half were denied permission to continue operating. To meet the new requirements tour operators must use only assigned camp sites with proper toilet facilities; carry all garbage with them; use only propane for fuel (no open fires); provide two guides for groups of more than seven tourists; and limit the amount porters carry to 25 kilos.

The World Monuments Fund placed Machu Picchu on its 2008 Watch List of the 100 Most Endangered Sites in the world because of environmental degradation resulting from the impact of tourism, uncontrolled development in the nearby town of Aguas Calientes that included a poorly sited tram to ease visitor access, and the construction of a bridge across the Vilcanota River that is likely to bring even more tourists to the site in defiance of a court order and government protests against it.

About 2,000 BC, the first stone circle (which is now the inner circle), comprised of small bluestones, was set up, but abandoned before completion. The stones used in that first circle are believed to be from the Prescelly Mountains, located roughly 240 miles away, at the southwestern tip of Wales. The bluestones weigh up to 4 tons each and about 80 stones were used, in all. Given the distance they had to travel, this presented quite a transportation problem.

Modern theories speculate that the stones were dragged by roller and sledge from the inland mountains to the headwaters of Milford Haven. There they were loaded onto rafts, barges or boats and sailed along the south coast of Wales, then up the Rivers Avon and Frome to a point near present-day Frome in Somerset. From this point, so the theory goes, the stones were hauled overland, again, to a place near Warminster in Wiltshire, approximately 6 miles away. From there, it’s back into the pool for a slow float down the River Wylye to Salisbury, then up the Salisbury Avon to West Amesbury, leaving only a short 2 mile drag from West Amesbury to the Stonehenge site.

The giant sarsen stones (which form the outer circle), weigh as much as 50 tons each. To transport them from the Marlborough Downs, roughly 20 miles to the north, is a problem of even greater magnitude than that of moving the bluestones. Most of the way, the going is relatively easy, but at the steepest part of the route, at Redhorn Hill, modern work studies estimate that at least 600 men would have been needed just to get each stone past this obstacle.

Once on site, a sarsen stone was prepared to accommodate stone lintels along its top surface. It was then dragged until the end was over the opening of the hole. Great levers were inserted under the stone and it was raised until gravity made it slide into the hole. At this point, the stone stood on about a 30° angle from the ground. Ropes were attached to the top and teams of men pulled from the other side to raise it into the full upright position. It was secured by filling the hole at its base with small, round packing stones. At this point, the lintels were lowered into place and secured vertically by mortice and tenon joints and horizontally by tongue and groove joints. Stonehenge was probably finally completed around 1500 BC.

Stonehenge Visitor Information
Stonehenge is open year round and can be visited by taking the Stonehenge bus from Salisbury to the site. The bus departs every 25 minutes from Salisbury center. You can also take a guided tour of the site, which also provides transportation to the sit. Stonehenge is open during the following time:

Spring: 1 Jun to 31 Aug, 09.00am – 19.00pm
Summer: 1 Jun to 31 Aug, 09.00am – 19.00pm
Autumn: 1 Sept to 15 Oct, 09.30am – 18.00pm
Winter: 16 Oct to 15 Mar, 09.30am – 16.00pm

Stonehenge is open every day of the year except Christmas Eve and Christmas Day. Stonehenge ticket prices are about 7 pounds. There is also an audio guide available that will tell you the history of the site. You cannot go directly up to the site as it is now forbidden in order to protect the stones.

Stonehenge Conservation Efforts
Stonehenge’s biggest problem was people and until recently people could just walk right up to the site. However, because of vandalism and wear on the stones, a fence as been erected around the site restricting access. Moreover, visitors are no longer able to walk right up and touch the stones. Archeologists continue to excavate and explore the area in order to get a better understand of the people who built the site and its purpose.

Around 900 AD, Tikal declined as Maya civilization in the region suffered collapse during the end of their Classic period. There are many potential reasons for this including overpopulation, environmental degradation, drought and the Maya’s long history of warfare.

Tikal was eventually abandoned completely, consumed by the jungle, and forgotten. Stories of its existence began to surface and spread during the 17th and 18th centuries. During the the mid-1800′s, expeditions were hatched to explore and map it. The University of Pennsylvania oversaw major excavation at Tikal during the 1960′s while the government of Guatemala began the work in late 1970′s.

Tikal was one of the greatest and most populated cities of the Mayan civilization, at its peak sustaining some 200,000 people within its 30 square miles. Only a fraction of Tikal’s more than 3,000 buildings have been excavated, allowing visitors to see temples, palaces, tombs and religious monuments.

Tikal Visitor Information
Tikal’s main gate opens at 6:00am and closes at 6:00pm. Tickets to the park are purchased at the main gate across from the Visitors Center near the parking lot. A ticket into Tikal cost 20USD for adults and tickets purchased after 3:30pm are also valid the next day.

There are two hotels in Tikal National Park. The Tikal Inn and the Jungle Lodge have comfortable accommodations, which include hot showers, two double beds, whirling ceiling fans was well as restaurant service. Visitors can also rent tents or sleep in hammocks if they are on a budget. This option is commonly used by backpackers.

The site is busiest during the day when tours from Flores and neighboring Belize come to the park. The best hours to avoid the crowds are early in the morning or after 2pm when the tours leave for lunch. This is also the best time to see the wildlife as the crowds no longer scare them away.

Tikal Conservation Efforts
Nearby cities and towns put pressure on the park as many people burn the surrounding forest for farming and cattle grazing as well as illegally extracting forest products from the park itself. Increasing tourism has caused damage to the buildings, disrupted the habitat of some animal and bird species, and created a garbage problem. Moreover, high turnover rate among park staff is a problem because it reduces management stability.

The Nature Conservancy recently helped the Guatemalan Ministry of Culture develop new master plan for Tikal National Park, replacing old one that was created in the 1970s. The plan puts primary emphasis on protecting the natural and cultural heritage of Tikal and sets up a framework for sustainable tourism management. This should help reduce the impact of tourism and help preserve the park for future generations as well as help the local population.

The Colosseum is also a marvel of modernity. The Romans invented tickets and assigned seating in this arena. Before each game, visitors would pick up a ticket that would have a number corresponding to one of the 79 entrance arches. The ticket also had a level and a seat number where the person would sit.

When the Colosseum was completed in 80 AD, it could hold more than 50,000 people. Its opening was celebrated with 100 days of games in which thousands of animals and gladiators were killed. Sometimes they would even flood the Colosseum to stage small naval battles. The emperor had his own entrance and from his private “box seat” he decided the fate of defeated gladiators with a thumbs up or down (like in the movie). The floor of the Colosseum was wood covered with sand. Beneath the floor, there was a maze of passageways for people, and temporary holding pens for the animals. A hand-operated crank was used to raise the animals from the basement up to the surface. The walls of the subterranean passageways can still be seen today when you visit the site.

The Colosseum was used for almost 400 years, and has survived earthquakes, years of neglect, and the pillaging of popes who took marble for their own buildings. It has only been preserved in the last century.

Colosseum Visitor Information
The Colosseum is open every day of the week. A full ticket costs €15.50 while a EU reduced ticket – €10.50 (only for European citizens aged between 18 and 25) and EU minors seniors ticket- €4.50 (only for EU citizens aged above 65 and under 18). The Rome archaeological card is also valid at the Colosseum. Moreover, you can also buy a joint ticket for a tour of Palatine hill, a worthwhile site where the old elite used to live.

The Colosseum is open until 4pm. However it has later hours during the summer months because of the increased number of tourists. You can also sign up for special tours that will take you to some areas underneath the Colosseum. Summer peak season see longer wait times- make sure you get there early to avoid most of the crowds. You can also hire guides outside the site. If you are staying at one of the many luxury hotels in rome, they can organize tours for you.

Colosseum Conservation Effort
When restoration of the Colosseum began in 1995, only 15 percent of the Colosseum was open to visitors. Now, up to 85% of the site is open to tourists. The Colosseum is constantly being renovated and cataloged. However, as with a lot of historical sites in Italy, renovation is often slow due to politics and corruption. The Colosseum needs much more work than it gets and as projects begin to slow, the site begins to deteriorate. Moreover, the pollution around the city also destroys the site.

The main temple in the complex is called Angkor Wat and was built between 1113 and 1150 by King Suryavarman II. After consolidating his power through military campaigns, diplomacy, and good domestic administration, Suryavarman started the construction of Angkor Wat near the town of Siem Reap. With walls nearly one-half mile long on each side, Angkor Wat portrays the Hindu cosmology. The central towers represent Mount Meru, home of the gods; the outer walls, the mountains enclosing the world; and the moat, the oceans beyond.

After the death of Suryavarman, the kingdom fell into a period of internal strife as various factions tried to gain control. After defeating the neighboring Cham Empire in 1181, Jayavarman assumed the throne. He continued the construction of the Angkor complex. Jayavarman constructed the walled city of Angkor Thom, as well as its geographic and spiritual center, the temple known as the Bayon. These remain two of the most popular temples today. The bas-reliefs in the Bayon depict the king’s victory over the Cham as well as scenes from the life of Khmer villagers and courtiers. Jayavarman was also responsible for building the well-known temples of Ta Prohm and Preah Khan. During Jayavarman’s reign, the Hindu temples were altered to display images of the Buddha, and Angkor Wat briefly became a Buddhist shrine.

However, the end of the Angkorian period occurred in 1431 A.D. when Angkor was sacked and looted by Thai invaders. During the 15th century, nearly all of the Angkor area was abandoned, except for Angkor Wat, which remained a Buddhist shrine. However, even that was abandoned and the area was reclaimed by the jungle until its “discovery” in the 19th century. The Angkor area was placed on UNESCO’s list of World Heritage sites in 1992.

Angkor Visitor Information
Visitors to the temples of Angkor must buy an entrance ticket prior to entry. The ticket offices are open from 5 a.m. in the morning to 5:30 p.m. at night. A one day pass is US$ 20, a three day is US$ 40, and a week pass costs US$ 60. Get there either early or late because during the mid-day, the lines are very long.

To get into the park, visitors must show their Angkor Pass and whenever they pass one of the checkpoints or at the entrance to most of the major temples and other monuments. The park itself is open from sunrise to sunset everyday.

The Angkor complex is very large and hard to walk around. You will need to hirer a driver to take you around to the various temples, especially those outside the main complex. There are many, many drivers in the area as well as in the nearby town of Siem Reap. A personal driver for 3 days will cost around $12 USD. This covers his time and gas. Moreover, he will wait at each ruin until you are down exploring.

Angkor Conservation Efforts
The Angkor temple complex is in great disrepair. Most of the sites are being ruined or destroyed and tourism here has been a double edged sword. The site currently draws about one million tourists a year, but those numbers continue to swell each year. While this brings in money it also brings in more people that take things and wear down the stones and complexes.

Conservation work on the site resumed after the Cambodia civil war, and since 1993 has been jointly coordinated by the French and Japanese and UNESCO through the International Coordinating Committee on the Safeguarding and Development of the Historic Site of Angkor (ICC). Some temples have been carefully taken apart stone by stone and reassembled on concrete foundations to help preserve the sites.